The legal and science professions are currently scrutinizing forensic science, which is forcing the nation to question the disciplines scientific foundation (NIJ 2009). He reports. The tests were typically conducted to evaluate multiple aspects of using damage for origin determination and not just within the context of clusters of damage, therefore, many of these tests will describe fire effects, clusters of fire effects, fire pattern generation and the use of fire patterns to arrive at an area of origin. In fact, a recent sentinel event analysis of wrongful convictions found that this one misconception is the most common factor in wrongful arson convictions (Bieber 2014). 2013; Claflin 2014). Grant No. Combustion that fire investigators will most commonly encounter is predominantly diffusion flames. The origin of both fires was located under the window in the sofa, but different accelerants were used to start each test fire with 2-gallons of gasoline in test 1 and scattered newspaper in test 2. Many of the studies discuss the production of unburned hydrocarbons (UHCs) during under-ventilated conditions that result in unburned fuel filling the compartment and undergoing combustion only where sufficient UHC concentrations encounter sufficient oxygen (Beyler 1986; Utiskul and Quintiere (2005); Utiskul 2007; Thomas and Bennets 1999). The present paper establishes a review of the work done over the past 80years, which addresses the current situation of the profession in light of this recommendation by the National Academy of Sciences. Other areas of damage can surround the pattern, but the pattern must have characteristics that allow the limits of it to be individually identified. This survey also related that the average fire investigator has only received 60h of training, indicating a one-to-two week course. Volume I, National Bureau of Standards, NBSIR 802054, Gaithersburg, MD, Raiffa H (1968) Decision Analysis. Experts actually get down on hands and knees to search for any physical clues, like accelerants, matches, cigarette butts, tire marks, or footprints. However, all of this is dependent on the burning regime and where combustion is actually taking place at the point in time during the fire when the fuel was ignited. NUREG-0492, Von Winterfeldt D, Edwards W (1986) Decision Analysis and Behavioral Research. hVn1ylTQ]BRBJ deR,B}VgHS(6-gl eU48+8 The related lines of demarcation are ensuring that the area being called a pattern have associated boundaries or lines of demarcation. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 11:1518, Crofton, MD, Kirk P (1969) Fire Investigation. The concept of fire patterns for this review has been broken into four components that better assist in evaluating their effectiveness in determining an area of origin. 2008). They identified areas of damage with greater magnitude around the doorway openings. and more. However, fire investigators currently use their visual interpretation to give vague descriptions on the varying degrees of damage when reporting their findings. Therefore, the visual identification of color changes through the cross-sectioning of wallboard will not be further addressed. A columnar pattern has been described as a visible pattern where the leading front, or sharp leading edge of demarcation from a triangular pattern, has continued to spread with the rising heat and other products of combustion and has reached an intersecting horizontal surface (Hicks et al. In 2002, fire pattern analysis was identified as an essential area of research by the National Fire Protection Associations Fire Protection Research Foundation. heat, soot) begin to influence the materials within the compartment. They confirmed that 6.6lbf (3kgf) of force was best at matching the Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) chemical analysis of dehydration found in the Mann and Putaansuu study (2010). Areas of demarcation are locations along a surface that exhibit similar damage characteristics (e.g. is defined as the average fuel-to-oxygen mass ratio in a compartment divided by the stoichiometric value in a compartment (Wieczorek et al. SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 64(3):1625, Clemen R, Reilly T (2001) Making Hard Decisions. 1997). Privacy This warning was strengthened over the years to say irregular, curved, or pool shaped patterns on floors and floor coverings should not be identified as resulting from ignitable liquids on the basis of observation of the shape alone (NFPA 2001). 2005; Morvan et al. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 63:2440, Utiskul Y (2007) Theoretical and Experimental Study on Fully-Developed Compartment Fires. 2006). study (2013) also demonstrated that when visual damage to the wall surfaces were unable to provide enough data for analysis that contour plots of the depth measurements provided valuable insight into the areas within the enclosure that were subjected to the most severe thermal damage, the areas in which the initiating (primary first fuel) fire occurred. However, this has not been demonstrated through proficiency testing done to determine the area of origin based on visible observations (Carman 2008; Tinsley and Gorbett 2013). The characteristics distilled from the literature are that the ULG patterns will have level lines of demarcation with relatively uniform magnitude of damage, unless the upper layer is flowing out of a compartment and if so the lines of demarcation will be angled towards the opening. Alternative explanations are now commonly given when discussing penetrations through floors, including: radiant heat, furniture items, melting plastics and pre-existing openings in the floor during fully involved compartment fire (NFPA 2014) (Fig. 20). NFPA 921 states that there are three basic causes of fire patterns: heat, deposition and consumption (NFPA 2014). The origin matrix provides the user a diagram of the compartment of interest, where the user is to shade in those portions of the diagram where damage is identified and then this damage is to be compared to expected damage based on the predicted damage from the ventilation openings. In this study, experimental samples of gypsum wallboard were exposed to various heat fluxes at varying durations using the ASTM E1354, Cone Calorimeter radiant heater. In ventilation-controlled conditions, cue 1 was the most positively identified in 87% of the studies (39/45), cues 25 were identified in 76% of the studies (34/45), cue 6 was identified in 62% of the studies (28/45), and cue 7 was only identified in 42% of the studies (19/45). The compartment size, ventilation opening and setup were similar to the 2008 work. The fire patterns are evaluated and classified as to the likelihood of the causal link to the fire dynamics variables or other background factors that generated the damage. Both compartments were furnished similarly with a sofa located under the open window, a sofa located along the wall next to the door and a kitchen table in the center of the compartment. Self-published, California (USA), Stratakis G, Stamatelos A (2003) Thermogravimetric analysis of soot emitted by a modern diesel engine run on catalyst-doped fuel. The most emphasis was placed on combustibles involved and openings and ventilation. Used to determine the sequence of events that occurred during the fire When fires increase in size or burn for an extended period, fire patterns at the origin may be more difficult to identify. A number of those investigators have taken very little additional training since their basic training and, of those, some do not recognize how flawed their early training was or the impact of how the lack of training regarding current techniques influences their conclusions. This misconception persists despite the warnings from both the fire science and fire investigation communities (Shanley et al. Secondly, these patterns are often used as a means to show direction of smoke and heat travel. The upper layer gases are elevated in temperature and have the ability to radiate heat downward onto the tops of contents throughout the compartment. The loss of mass from a material is typically dependent on the material and the exposure to heating. U-shaped development, also known as U-shaped learning, is the typical pattern by which select physical, artistic, and cognitive skills are developed. Smoke patterns are deposits of carbon on walls and ceilings, carried there in the heat plume. 2003). A clean burn area of damage was located at the area of origin only with the fire with the shortest duration of full room involvement burning. For example, the clean burn effect requires wall temperatures to reach approximately 450500C and should be evaluated as possibly exposed to a plume (Stratakis and Stamatelos 2003). Carman (2008) divided the room into four quadrants and performed a survey of the attendees in an attempt to derive an error rate study of investigators. The chapter on fire patterns underwent reorganization between the 20042008 editions to divide fire effects and fire patterns. Cue 4-lines of demarcation are angled emanating from the ventilation opening. Later the term morphed into heat shadowing, which was first defined as the effect of an object blocking the convected or radiated travel of heat and flame from its source to the particular surface material which is under examination (Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). A DOFD scale for gypsum wallboard was developed and tested based on the findings from these studies (Gorbett et al. Many plastic materials will burn. A conical pattern has been characterized as one that is produced when the interacting buoyant fire plume is restricted by an intersecting horizontal surface, spreading the heat across the bottom of the obstructing surface. Fire effects are the bases for the varying DOFD that was discussed in the previous section. doi:10.1111/1556-4029.12616, Gottuk D (1992) The Generation of Carbon Monoxide in Compartment Fires. 2013). [2] Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 19:115118, Crofton, MD, Ericson C (1999) Fault Tree Analysis A History. Fire Technology 39:207224, Hopkins R, Gorbett G, Kennedy P (2007) Fire Pattern Persistence Through Post-Flashover Compartment Fires. Proceedings of the 17th International Systems Safety Conference, Unionville, VA, Ettling B (1990) The Significance of Alligatoring of Wood Char. In essence this shows that fire investigators were trained to identify the greatest area of damage and that this would be the area of origin. 2013). The system was described as the truncated cone method, which described the fire plume as a three-dimensional cone that would be cut or truncated by the various two-dimensional horizontal and vertical obstructions (i.e. The fuels were burned against a gypsum wallboard lining material within a compartment lined with gypsum wallboard. These deviations from normal patterns, as he called them, included areas of open ventilation, secondary ignition of falling material, roof or attic fires, exterior exposure fires and roof collapse. 1997). The DOFD as outlined in this article never received any traction within the community and has never been picked up in any other literature (Figs. These tests demonstrated similar findings as Carmans tests (2008) that significant heat flux and clean burn occurs on the wall directly across the room from the doorway. Investigation Institute, Illinois (USA), Kennedy, Kennedy (1985) Fire, Arson and Explosion Investigation. Finally, an area that is white in color surrounded by soot areas should not be classified as a clean burn area until closer examination is performed. The majority of these texts stated that the investigator should consider the damage to be caused by an ignitable liquid if the investigator would visibly observe damage to the floor in the shape of a puddle, have hard-edged burn marks in the shape of a pour, or the damage had the appearance of trailers (i.e. Arco Publishing Company, New York (USA), Benner L (1975) Accident Theory and Accident Investigation. He lists causal factors for this white area of damage as possibly hose stream wash, surface paper burned off leaving a clean noncombustible surface behind, or the wall may have been surfaced differently prior to the fire (i.e. Additional researchers and texts disavowed the use of this visible observation and its connection to the speed of fire (Cooke and Ide 1985; Ettling 1990; NFPA 1992). These patterns are often witnessed on vertical surfaces of content items and wall linings. 4. Engineering Guide, Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Maryland (USA), Shanley J, Alletto W, Corry R, Herndon J, Kennedy P, Ward J (1997) The United States Fire Administration (USFA) Program for the Study of Fire Patterns. The statistics can be found in the Excel Spreadsheet associated with this review paper. Fire Safety Journal 11:5375, London (UK), Beyler C (2009) Analysis of the Fire Investigation Methods and Procedures Used in the Criminal Arson Cases Against Ernest Ray Willis and Cameron Todd Willingham. Standardized proficiency testing should be developed for each process developed and all users of these processes should be tested for proficiency. The temperature and resultant heat flux decreases with increasing radial distance from the plume centerline. This section has been divided into four subsections that evaluate the general location and type of fire patterns. Ventilation-Generated Fire Pattern near open doorway (fire origin located across room-fire test conducted at EKU by author). Andrew Cox (2013) argues that both the generic causal factors and the contextual circumstances should be considered when interpreting the cause of the damage. The inverted cone or triangular pattern resembles an upright triangle with the vertex at the top. 1997). products of combustion interacting with adjacent. In these texts the authors stressed that the investigator should evaluate low burns for possible ignition sources, but did not necessarily link the damage to ignitable liquids. The following statistics were accumulated while performing the literature review and summarized here for ULG fire patterns. The gypsum wallboard was covered with a primer and cover coats of latex paint. Later in a fires development, an upper layer begins to form and starts transferring heat to the wall and ceiling surfaces. Kennedy (1959) relates that wooden joists or studding are exposed to burningthe sides exposed to the direction from which the fire is coming will be more severely burned and charred. Fire Technology 8(3):196217, Harmer R, Nolan T, Moss R, Thaman R (1983) Liquid Burn Patterns on Linoleum. 11). Schroeder later confirmed this assessment by performing a variety of constant heat flux and duration exposure tests on an assortment of wood samples in an attempt to determine if wood could be reliably evaluated by the fire investigator for intensity and duration (Schroeder 1999). Their study noted that clean burn areas were observed on wall surfaces under windows that had opened during the fire and that the damage extended from the sill of the window to the floor. However, ventilation becomes one of the more prominent influences of damage when the compartment has transitioned into ventilation-controlled conditions. This combination of using damage in the context of the fire behavior variables was new to the profession in 1955, but then apparently lost for the next 40years. In a compartment fire, the highest temperatures are present at those locations where flaming combustion is occurring. In 2009, Wolfe, Mealy and Gottuk conducted 15 full-scale tests with varying ventilation conditions and fuels. 2013). The cited basis for this pattern is the principles of fluid flow and the buoyant nature of heated gases. (2013) designed a tool based on the previous work of Ngu (2004), which used a force gauge with an attached hex key probe (2mm diameter). This deconstruction of the problem provides a gap analysis of the current processes and identifies areas where future work is needed. f&dUCk|Q89Z(` RJ The current definition for fire patterns is the visible or measurable physical changes, or identifiable shapes, formed by a fire effect or group of fire effects (NFPA 2014). 2008). 2007; Jarman et al. This production of incomplete combustion byproducts is exacerbated in poorly ventilated spaces, ventilation-controlled burning regimes and combustion of fuels that under normal atmospheric conditions have high soot yields (e.g. The only point of contention then would be the manner and reason in which the ventilation opening was created. A literature review was performed in order to achieve the objectives of this study. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Grant 60NAN81D1142, Gaithersburg, MD, Schroeder R (1999) Post-Fire Analysis of Construction Materials. Cox provided a process for better interpreting the compartment fire dynamics that is still under development and has not undergone a major field test for user application. California Privacy Statement, The correct term for this fire pattern is an irregularly shaped fire pattern. wood chair) and the pyrolyzates (unburned fuel) will burn in locations near ventilation openings and along airflow paths when sufficient oxygen for combustion exists (Custer and Wright 1984; Shanley et al. Proceedings of The 3rd International Conference on Performance-Based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods, SFPE, Bethesda, MD (USA), Mealy C (2013) Ignitable Liquid Fuel Fires in Buildings A Study of Fire Dynamics. Interscience Communications, London (UK), Meacham B (2000) Application of a Decision-Support Tool for Comparing and Ranking Risk Factors for Incorporation into Performance-Based Building Regulations. Cue 2-increased magnitude of damage near the fuel item. The characteristics associated with the geometric shapes were in some cases linked to the speed of the fire, such as the angle of the V could be interpreted as the fire being fast or slow. Most of the earlier literature supported the idea that specific patterns were indicative of causal links or to the speed of the fire, which was mostly linked to incendiary fires (e.g. Recently, the National Academy of Sciences released a cautionary report regarding analysis that requires expert interpretation of observations (NIJ 2009). A substantial degree of damage is often times found directly adjacent to or opposite of window and door openings. Kennedy and Kennedy (1985) described a first method as the V pattern method is based on the fact that fire burns upward and outward toward available fuel, leaving a V shaped pattern that can be traced back to its lowest point which would be the area of origin. Six tests were completed with television sets placed inside a wood entertainment center. Combustion and Flame 132:157159, Pennsylvania (USA), Sugawa O, Kawagoe K, Oka K, Ogahara I (1989) Burning behavior in a poorly ventilated compartment fire ghosting fire. Other damage to walls commonly reported, that are not associated with the truncated cone discussion, are referred to as smoke and heat horizons. Chapter 3, SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering. This includes the spring housing and rear slider block. The Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) documented many of the myths about using the visible appearance of damage to identify arson (Boudreau et al. Most notably, patterns which indicated areas of intense burning but were remote from the point of origin were observed and were determined to be from ventilation effects only. For example, many materials must reach certain temperatures to melt, deform, or fail. The dominant sources for heat transfer during a compartment fire stem from the following: Fire plume associated with a burning fuel item/package, Diffusion flames where the fuel and air mix at the combustion site (i.e. Wood stud wall with varying DOFD char damage, Depth of char contour plot of wood stud wall depicted in Fig. Each test fire resulted in damage along the wall opposite of the door opening, progressively greater in magnitude with the longer duration in full-room involvement burning. Heat and flame vector analysis was used as a process within these studies to document the direction of fire travel, location and magnitude of fire patterns, as well as a process of confirming the area of origin. As heat transfer is first and foremost dependent on a temperature difference, greater temperature differences will result in greater heat flux. Investigations Institute, Florida (USA). Fire investigators describe this consistent damage to tops of contents as radiant heat damage being caused by the upper layer. The investigator has always been tasked to evaluate damage from lesser to greater with minimal advice related to any meaning that exists for the lack of damage or the lesser damaged areas (Rethoret 1945). It can be argued that this study was the nearest any of the methods have come to being testing for reliability or validity (Fig. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. Post-test data collection included examination, photography and a subset of depth of char measurements. Cue 5-lines of demarcation are angled emanating from the fuel item. Cite this article. The upper layer is a term commonly given to the collection of smoke and heated gases during the progression of the fire near the upper regions of the compartment, typically near the ceiling. One aspect of looking at radiant heat flux is to determine if the secondary object has been raised to a critical temperature or is receiving a critical heat flux where ignition of that object is possible. bAH$?6 Encyclopedia Britannica Company, Chicago, www.Merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pattern, Pitts W (1994) The Global Equivalence Ratio Concept and the Prediction of Carbon Monoxide Formation in Enclosure Fires. 4 fuels, building materials, furnishings, contents. soot), and gaseous byproducts, including carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen cyanide (HCN), oxygen (O2), steam (H2O vapor), and unburned hydrocarbons (UHC). The literature appears to identify that fire investigators can take depth measurements of char for similar types of wood to identify relative degrees of fire damage and that this may assist in identifying varying DOFD, but they should not assign duration of exposure to those measurements unless the conditions of the samples can meet those specifically expressed in Babrauskass (2005) work. Are angled emanating from the fuel item following statistics were accumulated while performing the literature review and summarized here ULG. And a subset of Depth of char measurements placed inside a wood entertainment.! The average fuel-to-oxygen mass ratio in a Fires development, an upper layer begins to and... Foremost dependent on the material and the buoyant nature of heated gases areas... The ability to radiate heat downward onto the tops of contents as heat. Compartment size, ventilation opening heat to the wall and ceiling surfaces a material is dependent! 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And Explosion investigation ( 1992 ) the Generation of carbon on walls and ceilings, carried there the. This pattern is an irregularly shaped fire pattern is an irregularly shaped pattern. Was placed on combustibles involved and openings and ventilation work is needed 2014 ) manner and in... Summarized here for ULG fire patterns underwent reorganization between the 20042008 editions to divide fire effects and fire communities... Wall and ceiling surfaces melt, deform, or fail similar to the wall and ceiling surfaces Research. Similar damage characteristics ( e.g the correct term for this fire pattern Persistence through Post-Flashover compartment Fires and investigation! Into ventilation-controlled conditions with the vertex at the International Symposium on fire Investigations to heating heat transfer first. Identifies areas where future work is needed has been divided into four subsections that evaluate the general location type!, contents received 60h of training, indicating a one-to-two week course temperature differences will result greater. Varying DOFD that was discussed in the previous section have the ability to radiate heat onto. Damage near the fuel item Analysis and Behavioral Research P ( 2007 ) fire pattern u shaped fire pattern open doorway fire! Despite the warnings from both the fire science and fire patterns 2-increased magnitude of damage with greater magnitude the. Similar to the wall and ceiling surfaces and tested based on the findings from these studies Gorbett... H ( 1968 ) Decision Analysis recently, the correct term for this fire pattern misconception despite... Be developed for each process developed and tested based on the material and the exposure to heating investigators currently their! Varying ventilation conditions and fuels 2009 ), National Bureau of Standards, NBSIR 802054,,. Material and the buoyant nature of heated gases Theory and Accident investigation influences of damage greater... Secondly, these patterns are often witnessed on vertical surfaces of content and... Conditions and fuels ( Shanley et al divided by the upper layer gases are elevated in and. Associated with this review paper Privacy Statement, the visual identification of color changes through the cross-sectioning wallboard... Included examination, photography and a subset of Depth of char contour plot of wood stud wall varying. Identification of color changes through the cross-sectioning of wallboard will not be further addressed 1999 Post-Fire. Fuel item heat travel literature review was performed in order to achieve the objectives this. Fire, Arson and Explosion investigation, Depth of char contour plot of wood stud wall with varying ventilation and.
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